Final answer:
In philosophical discussions on pleasure and pain, hedonism positions pleasure as good and pain as bad. Epicurus teaches that pleasure comes from moderation, virtue, and ataraxia, while Aristotle and Mill differentiate between higher and lower pleasures or vices based on the nature of actions that develop character. Additionally, Stoicism emphasizes virtues like courage and wisdom for maintaining inner freedom.
Step-by-step explanation:
The concept of pleasure and pain is central to various ethical systems, particularly hedonism, which posits that pleasure is the guide to what is morally good, while pain suggests what is bad. This is seen in the philosophies of figures like Epicurus, who advocated for moderation and virtue as pathways to the greatest pleasure, conceptualized as ataraxia, or tranquility. Epicurus's vision of pleasure was not confined to sensory experiences but extended to mental and emotional states, reflecting a broader conception of well-being.
Focusing on moral development, Aristotle suggested that virtues are the result of habituating oneself to act in morally exemplary ways, and from these actions, one's character is formed. Engaging in virtuous behaviors, such as being just or brave, influences our capabilities to deal with life's challenges and contributes to eudaimonia, a form of true happiness or flourishing. Conversely, vices are associated with excess and moral failings. Those who succumb to vices like gluttony or greed do not achieve true happiness, as their pleasure is rooted in transient and superficial things.
In utilitarian ethics, John Stuart Mill introduces a distinction between higher and lower pleasures, arguing that certain pleasures, which engage our higher cognitive faculties such as reason and moral sense, are more valuable than the basic sensory pleasures. The cultivation of such higher pleasures is seen as indicative of pursuing a life of virtue. On the contrary, overindulgence in lower pleasures can lead to vices that ultimately detract from one's well-being.
Finally, the Stoic school of philosophy, including Roman Stoics, emphasized virtues like courage, justice, temperance, and wisdom. They argued for rational self-control over emotional upheavals, positing that such control is vital for maintaining inner freedom and dealing effectively with misfortune.