Final answer:
Phenomenology is the notion that thinking and reason's structure come from the details of being in a body, contrasting with Descartes' Dualism which distinguishes mind and body as separate entities.
Step-by-step explanation:
According to the notion that the structure of reason comes from the details of being in a body, the correct answer is d) Phenomenology. Phenomenology is a philosophical approach that emphasizes the subjective experience of the individual and posits that consciousness is always directed toward an object, implying that the mind is inseparable from its bodily experiences. This concept contrasts with Dualism, which is the belief that the mind and the body are distinct substances; Idealism, which holds that reality is fundamentally mental or spiritual; and Materialism, which claims that only physical matter exists and there is no spiritual realm.
Rene Descartes is known for his dualistic perspective where he proposed that the mind (res cogitans) is a distinct, non-material entity from the physical body (res extensa). He is famous for his philosophical statement, Cogito, ergo sum (I think, therefore I am), which supports the view that one can be certain of their existence through the act of thinking, but does not necessarily prove the existence of a body or physical substance. Descartes' ideas have been both influential and controversial, with materialists and modern science often challenging his separation of mind and body, pointing to the lack of evidence for thought without a brain, and explaining mental processes in terms of the brain's physical structure and function.