Final answer:
The political structures associated with Muslim rule evolved over time as a result of factors such as changing military realities and the influence of religion. The Mamluk dynasty emerged in the thirteenth century due to the failure of orderly succession. Despite political fragmentation, the Islamic world maintained cohesiveness through religion, and trade and travel played a role in uniting Muslim societies.
Step-by-step explanation:
The political structures associated with Muslim rule evolved over time due to factors such as changing military realities and the influence of religion. In the thirteenth century, the Mamluk dynasty emerged as a result of the failure of orderly succession. This dynasty, founded by mercenaries, controlled parts of the Mediterranean. In North Africa, centralized power collapsed, leading to a decline in Muslim governance in the Iberian Peninsula. Despite these changes, Sunni Islam grew stronger throughout this period.
In the sixteenth century, the ummah consisted of large empires like the Mughal Empire of India, Safavid Empire of Iran, and Ottoman Empire of the Mediterranean, as well as smaller kingdoms in other regions. Despite political fragmentation, the Islamic world maintained cohesiveness through religion. The ulama, religious clerics and scholars, helped unify the diverse Islamic world by engaging in scholarly debates, advising rulers, and issuing legal opinions. Politically and religiously, judges oversaw disputes and the ulama played a significant role in policymaking.
Trade and travel played an important role in uniting the Islamic world despite political differences. Regulated trade under Islamic law, known as sharia, helped spread Islam from Spain to China by the sixteenth century. Political institutions were influenced by the religion, and Islamic societies had similar structures and functions. While there were variations in political and social organization, such as the Mamluk Sultanate, the underlying principles of Islam provided a unifying force.