Final answer:
Islamic lands from 900 to 1400 were governed through a combination of caliphates, sultanates, and emirates, featuring centralized authority under the Abbasid Caliphate and regional rulers. New challenges emerged due to internal conflicts, fragmentation, invasions by the Mongols and Crusaders, economic changes, and theological disputes.
Explanation:
From 900 to 1400, Islamic lands experienced various modes of governance. Initially, the Abbasid Caliphate held centralized authority but faced challenges such as internal conflicts and the weakening of central power. Subsequently, the Islamic world fragmented into smaller entities like sultanates and emirates, each ruled by regional dynasties. These smaller states often competed for power and influence, leading to political instability within the broader Islamic world.
Simultaneously, external threats arose. The Mongol invasions devastated parts of the Islamic world, causing widespread destruction and disrupting established governance structures. Additionally, the Crusades brought conflicts between Muslim and Christian forces, impacting the stability of various Islamic regions.
Economic changes, including shifts in trade routes due to discoveries in maritime navigation, altered the socio-economic landscape, posing challenges to established systems. Furthermore, theological disputes within Islam led to schisms, affecting the unity of the Islamic lands.
In summary, the governance of Islamic lands between 900 and 1400 witnessed a transition from centralized authority to regional rule, accompanied by internal conflicts, external invasions, economic shifts, and theological disagreements that collectively posed significant challenges to rulers and governance structures.