Final answer:
True, authorized information holders can challenge classification if they believe the information is improperly or unnecessarily classified. This is in line with efforts to ensure appropriate classification levels and transparency, such as through court rulings on prior restraints on the media and the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA). so, option 1 is the correct answer.
Step-by-step explanation:
Authorized information holders outside the classifying agency do indeed have the right to challenge the classification of information if they have substantial cause to believe that the information was improperly or unnecessarily classified. This is part of the checks and balances intended to prevent over-classification and abuse of classification authority in the interest of transparency and accountability. However, this process does not guarantee that the challenge will be successful, as the original classification authority will review the challenge and make a determination.
The Supreme Court has outlined that the government's ability to impose prior restraints on the media, especially concerning classified material, is very limited. For example, the Pentagon Papers case, New York Times Co. v. United States, established that the government's interest in keeping information classified must be balanced against the First Amendment, and the right of the press to print classified material is not absolute, particularly when it could compromise troop movements or covert operatives.
The Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) further supports the notion that while certain documents may be classified, there is a public interest in preventing excessive secrecy by government agencies. Under FOIA, individuals can request information from the government, with certain exemptions to protect sensitive information related to national security, personal privacy rights, and other key interests.