Answer:
All-or-nothing thinking: Also known as "black and white thinking," this cognitive distortion includes perceiving things in terms of extremes, with little opportunity for middle ground or subtlety. Those who think in terms of all-or-nothing tend to see things as either fully excellent or completely negative, with no in-between. For example, someone may feel that they are either a full success or a complete failure in life, with no in-between.
- An original example of all-or-nothing thinking may be a student who feels that in order to be deemed clever or successful, they must receive an A+ on every exam. If they receive a B on an exam, they may assume they are a complete failure and will never excel in school.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) will push the student to question their notion that anything less than an A+ is a failure in order to correct this cognitive distortion. The therapist would assist the student in seeing the middle ground and understanding that receiving a B does not imply failure. The therapist may also advise the student to create more realistic goals for himself or herself.
Overgeneralization is a cognitive mistake that includes drawing broad generalizations from a single event or piece of data. Overgeneralizers tend to take one unfavorable event and apply it to all aspects of their lives. Someone may assume that because they failed one examination, they are incapable of succeeding in any academic topic.
- A person who is rejected by a romantic partner and decides that they are unlovable and will never find love is an original case of overgeneralization.
CBT would help the client to question their idea that one terrible incident defines their entire life in order to overcome this cognitive distortion. The therapist would assist the individual in identifying evidence that contradicts their negative viewpoint and in considering alternate reasons for the bad experience. The therapist may also urge the individual to participate in positive activities that will increase their self-esteem.
Making assumptions without having all of the essential information: This cognitive error includes making assumptions without having all of the relevant information. Individuals who indulge in this distortion are more likely to evaluate uncertain events negatively and to assume the worst-case scenario. For example, someone may believe that a friend is upset with them because they did not answer to a text message when, in fact, the friend was merely busy.
- A person who feels their supervisor is unhappy with them because they did not receive a response to an email they sent is an example of leaping to conclusions.
To correct this cognitive distortion, CBT would teach the individual to question their beliefs and seek further information before drawing judgments. The therapist would assist the individual in identifying other interpretations for the circumstance and determining whether or not their negative beliefs are reasonable. The therapist may also advise the individual to speak directly with the other person in order to clarify the problem.