c. Racial groups. Arthur Jensen proposed that IQ tests do not bear any intrinsic cultural biases that are more inclined to favor one racial or cultural group over another and are therefore accurate depictions of both scholastic and intellectual capacity. He received much criticism for this assertion, however, based on his claims that although Level 1 abilities (memory, simpler learning tasks, etc.) are present equally among all racial groups, the Level 2 abilities (higher thought, abstraction, etc.) present themselves more strongly in white and Asian students and will therefore exhibit comparative advantages in fields requiring more of the latter level of thinking.