The people who lost the most in the War of 1812 were the Native Americans. A little over a decade after the war ended, the Red Stick Creesks_ no longer had any homeland in Georgia. They ceded much of their land to the United States after losing the Battle of the Horseshoe Bend to American troops in 1814. Chief William McIntosh agreed to sell the rest of the tribal land in the Treaty of Indian Springs . He lost his life as a result of his decision. The path to removal for the 20,000 creeks still in Alabama was different. They did not fight against Americans on the battlefield. They established a capitol at Indian Territory (later known as Oklahoma). They had a government based on a Convention modeled on the one written in 1787 in Philadelphia. They could read and write in their own language and published a newspaper, named the Cherokee Phoenix. But in the end, they lost their land. When gold was discovered near Dahlonega, Georgia, in Native American territory, white settlers rushed to the area. Supreme Court Chief Justice John Ross ruled in the case of the relocation to Indian Territory v. Georgia that the Cherokees owned the land, not the State. President Andrew Jackson refused to enforce the Court’s decision. He signed the Indian Removal Act which offered the Cherokee land in exchange for their ancestral homelands. Chief John Ridge held out until US Army soldiers arrived and forced the Cherokee to move west.