Final answer:
The pope's refusal to nullify Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon resulted in Henry establishing the Church of England with himself as the head, beginning the English Reformation and separating the English Church from Roman Catholic authority.
Step-by-step explanation:
The direct results of the pope's refusal to nullify Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon were profound and changed the course of English history. Initially a devout Catholic who stood in opposition to the Protestant Reformation, Henry VIII was awarded the title "Defender of the Faith" by Pope Leo X. However, his desire for a male heir led him to seek an annulment from Catherine of Aragon, which the pope refused. This refusal ultimately compelled Henry to reject the authority of the Catholic Church, leading to the establishment of the Church of England with Henry at its head through Parliament's Act of Supremacy in 1534. Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer, who had Protestant sympathies, annulled the marriage, allowing Henry to marry Anne Boleyn. This series of events sparked the English Reformation and resulted in the separation of the English Church from the Roman Catholic Church.