Final answer:
In the late Middle Ages, the Catholic Church's power was challenged by European monarchs through events like the Investiture Controversy, the Avignon Papacy, and the Protestant Reformation, which ultimately led to stronger centralized nation-states and reduced papal influence.
Step-by-step explanation:
Balance of Power in Late Middle Ages
The balance of power between the Catholic Church and European monarchs underwent significant changes in the late Middle Ages. Initially, the Catholic Church held considerable power over European politics and society, largely due to its unified multinational bureaucracy and ability to extract wealth from the general populace. However, several events led to a shift in this power dynamic.
During the Investiture Controversy in the 11th century, Pope Gregory VII asserted the church's authority by banning simony and challenging the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV. This strained the relationship between the church and secular rulers, ultimately reducing the power monarchs had over church officials. Monarchs, such as those in France and the Two Sicilia's, began establishing strong royal bureaucracies, exerting more control over nobility and increasing their power.
In the 14th century, conflicts such as the one between Pope Boniface VIII and King Philip IV of France further weakened the papal authority. This period also saw the Avignon Papacy, where the pope resided in France, effectively under French influence. The Reformation in the 1500s, led by Martin Luther and John Calvin, significantly undermined Catholic dominance and gave rise to Protestantism, which many European rulers supported as a means to curb papal influence and strengthen their own power.
Ultimately, the power of the Catholic Church was challenged by the rise of centralized nation-states and monarchs seeking to reinforce their political authority, alongside the theological challenges posed by the Protestant Reformation and significant shifts in the societal and cultural landscape of Europe.