Final answer:
The Reformation initiated by Martin Luther led to the birth of Protestantism, challenging Catholic doctrines. The Counter-Reformation was the Catholic Church's response, featuring doctrinal clarification, the establishment of the Jesuits, and the Council of Trent. This era was marked by religious, political, and cultural upheavals that reshaped Europe.
Step-by-step explanation:
The Reformation was a seismic event in European history that began in 1517 with Martin Luther and his Ninety-five Theses. This movement challenged the doctrines and practices of the Catholic Church, leading to the birth of Protestantism. Luther's protests were catalyzed by issues such as the sale of indulgences by figures like Johann Tetzel, and emphasized salvation by faith alone and the authority of the Bible. The printing press played a crucial role in disseminating Luther's ideas rapidly across Europe.
In response to the spreading Protestant sentiment, the Catholic Church initiated the Counter-Reformation, emblematic of its desire to reform from within and to counter the Protestant challenge. Key elements of this period include the founding of new religious orders like the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, led by Ignatius of Loyola, and the establishment of the Council of Trent, which clarified Catholic doctrines and curbed abuses within the church. Notable figures like Paul III and Teresa of Avila played significant roles in the spiritual renewal efforts, aiming to reassert Catholicism's influence.
The reach of the Counter-Reformation extended across the globe through missionaries like Francis Xavier, who sought to spread Catholic teachings. In terms of doctrinal enforcement, tools like the Inquisition and the Index of Forbidden Books were employed to maintain ecclesiastical orthodoxy. The construction of St. Peter’s Basilica symbolized the renewed artistic and architectural vigor of the Church. On the other hand, Protestant sects such as the Presbyterians, founded by John Calvin, continued to grow, while national churches, such as in England under Henry VIII, emerged because of politically motivated breaks with Roman Catholicism like his pursuit of a divorce.